Agha Mohammad Khan (ca. He was formally deposed on 31 October 1925, when Reza Khan was proclaimed Shah by the Majlis, as Reza Shah Pahlavi. [63] As the Cambridge History of Iran states; "The steady encroachment of Russian troops along the frontier in the Caucasus, General Yermolov's brutal punitive expeditions and misgovernment, drove large numbers of Muslims, and even some Georgian Christians, into exile in Iran."[64]. Ahmad Shah Qajar (21/1/1898 - 21/2/1930) was Shah of Iran from July 16, 1909 to October 31, 1925 and the last of the Qajar dynasty. Rez Shh Biography - Facts, Childhood, Family Life & Achievements The young princes parents, about to go into exile abroad, were reluctant to part with him; but a constitutional crisis was avoided when they were persuaded to surrender the boy-king to a delegation of constitutionalists (E. G. Browne, The Persian Revolution of 1905-1909, Cambridge, 1910, p. 326). Fisher, William Bayne;Avery, Peter; Gershevitch, Ilya; Hambly, Gavin; Melville, Charles. [21]:20,74 Ever since the 1828 Treaty of Turkmanchay, Russia had received territorial domination in Iran. On the Iranian side Woq was the chief architect of the treaty, and the British considered his continuation in office essential to the treatys ratification and implementation. Mozaffar-e-din Shah's son Mohammad Ali Shah (reigned 19071909), who, through his mother, was also the grandson of Prime-Minister Amir Kabir (see before), with the aid of Russia, attempted to rescind the constitution and abolish parliamentary government. Upon learning of the fall of Tbilisi General Gudovich put the blame on the Georgians themselves. Ahmad Shah Qajar and his Cabinet; Ahmad Shah Qajar and his Cabinet. The ex-shah went into exile in Russia. [102][101] The involvement of a neutral country was seen to avoid "Great Game" rivalry between Russia and Britain, as well as avoid siding with any particular alliance (in the prelude to World War I). Government expenditure was slashed, and a distinction was made between the private and public purses. at Neuilly-sur-Seine, outside Paris, France, and was buried in his family crypt in Karbala, Iraq. [66] The initial ranks of the brigade would be entirely composed of Circassians and other Caucasian Muhajirs. The Qajars were a Turkmen tribe that held ancestral lands in present-day Azerbaijan, which then was part of Iran.In 1779, following the death of Mohammad Karim Khan Zand, the Zand Dynasty ruler of southern Iran, Agha Mohammad Khan, a leader of the Qajar tribe, set out to reunify Iran. The Grand Majlis enacted many reforms. Every future Shah of Iran would also die in exile. Among the first to go was a certain Russian captain, Smirnov, whom Moammad-Al Shah had appointed to teach his son Russian. The British had already decided on a withdrawal from Iran; and the date for Russian troop withdrawal was set for 1 April 1921. However, the occupation of Persia during World War I by Russian, British, and Ottoman troops was a blow from which Ahmad Shah never effectively recovered. Shah died in San Remo, Italy, in April 1925. Ahmad Shah died in 1930[how?] Ahmad Shah Qajar Biography - Shah of Iran from 1909 to 1925 what kind of government did the shah lead? He was buried at the Shrine of Imam Husain, Karbala, Iraq. This article is available in print.Vol. Thus ended the reign of Amad Shah and the 130-year-old Qajar dynasty. Franz Roubaud. Following the disintegration of the afavid empire in 1722, Qjr tribal chieftains became prominent in Iranian affairs. These migrations once again, towards Iran, included masses of Caucasian Azerbaijanis, other Transcaucasian Muslims, as well as many North Caucasian Muslims, such as Circassians, Shia Lezgins and Laks. war Schah von Persien vom 16. IRANIAN HISTORY (2) Islamic period, Encyclopedia Iranica. Agha Mohammad Khan | Encyclopedia.com Ahmad Shahi Pavilion (Persian: - Koushk-e Ahmad Shhi) is located in the Niavaran Complex, in the north of Tehran, Iran.Ahmad Shahi Pavilion is beside Mohammad Reza Pahlavi's dwelling, Niavaran Palace and the oldest building there, Sahebgharaniyeh Palace.The Pavilion was built at the end of the Qajar era as Ahmad Shah's dwelling among Niavaran garden. Ahmad Shah was born in Tabriz on 21 January 1898 and ascended to the throne at the age of 12[2] after the removal of his father Mohammad-Ali Shah by the Parliament on 16 July 1909. M. Hedyat, ert o aart, Tehran, 1330 ./1951. Soltan Ahmad Shah is ten or eleven years old here. 1 (Jan. 1974). He founded the first modern hospital in Iran.[75]. On the other hand, the Red Army along with rebels and warlords ruled much of the countryside. [clarification needed] Furthermore, under the Anglo-Persian Agreement, Persia received only a small fraction of the income generated by the Anglo-Persian Oil Company. During the remaining part of the 18041813 war, as well as through the 18261828 war, the absolute bulk of the Ayrums and Qarapapaqs that were still remaining in newly conquered Russian territories were settled in and migrated to Solduz (in modern-day Iran's West Azerbaijan province). Established in France, Amad Shah now became chiefly an observer of the events that took place in Iran, although he attempted, with little success, to influence their course. Thus, although Amad Shahs coronation on 21 July 1914 was marked by national jubilation, his popularity rapidly declined. "Griboedov not only extended protection to those Caucasian captives who sought to go home but actively promoted the return of even those who did not volunteer. [35] Unlike Peter the Great, Catherine the Great, the then-ruling monarch of Russia, viewed Georgia as a pivot for her Caucasian policy, as Russia's new aspirations were to use it as a base of operations against both Iran and the Ottoman Empire,[36] both immediate bordering geopolitical rivals of Russia. When Amad Shah came of age, he possessed all the qualities of a bad king: He was timid and unable to make clear decisions, lacked strength of character, loved to indulge in pleasure, tended towards bribe-taking, and was avaricious to an almost uncontrollable degree. On July 16, 1909, Mohammad Ali Shah was overthrown by rebels seeking to restore the 1906 Constitution . [39][40] As Iran could not permit or allow the cession of Transcaucasia and Dagestan, which had formed part of the concept of Iran for centuries,[17] it would also directly lead up to the wars of even several years later, namely the Russo-Persian War (18041813) and Russo-Persian War (18261828), which would eventually prove for the irrevocable forced cession of aforementioned regions to Imperial Russia per the treaties of Gulistan (1813) and Turkmenchay (1828), as the ancient ties could only be severed by a superior force from outside. Curzon instructed Norman to tell the shah his departure would be construed as an act of cowardice and that were he to decide to run away he could in no circumstances expect the slightest support and help from us (ibid., p. 686). [103], In 1921, the Russian-officered Persian Cossack Brigade was merged with the gendarmerie and other forces, and would become supported by the British. The weak economic state of Persia put Ahmad Shah and his government at the mercy of foreign influence; they had to obtain loans from the Imperial Bank of Persia. [16] As the Cambridge History of Iran notes; "Russia's client, Georgia, had been punished, and Russia's prestige, damaged." This terminated the Qajar dynasty. Ahmad Shah Qajar (Persian: ; 21 January 1898 21 February 1930) was Shah of Persia (Iran) from 16 July 1909 to 15 December 1925, and the last ruling member of the Qajar dynasty.[1]. Genealogy profile for Soltan Ahmad Shah Qajar, Shahanshah Soltan Ahmad Shah Qajar, Shahanshah (1898 - 1930) - Genealogy Genealogy for Soltan Ahmad Shah Qajar, Shahanshah (1898 - 1930) family tree on Geni, with over 240 million profiles of ancestors and living relatives. The Georgians, hopelessly outnumbered, were eventually defeated despite stiff resistance. In 1923, Ahmad Shah left Persia for Europe for health reasons. The Qajar armies at that time were mostly composed of Turkoman warriors and Georgian slaves. The Qajar army suffered a major military defeat in the war, and under the terms of the Treaty of Gulistan in 1813, Iran was forced to cede most of its Caucasian territories comprising modern-day Georgia, Dagestan, and most of Azerbaijan. [20][78] The Persian monarchy became more of a symbolic concept in which Russian diplomats were themselves powerbrokers in Iran and the monarchy was dependent on British and Russian loans for funds. Two months later, Re Khan entered the cabinet, replacing Colonel Masd Khan Kayhn, Sayyed s right-hand man, as minister of war. [62], Through the Battle of Ganja of 1804 during the Russo-Persian War (18041813), many thousands of Ayrums and Qarapapaqs were settled in Tabriz. These developments made a deep impression on the Iranian olam , who feared that the proclamation of a republic in Iran would have similar consequences for the role of Islam and the religious establishment in their country (Survey of International Affairs 3, 1925, p. 537). French publications at the time reported that his estate was worth some seventy-five million francs.[5]. It marked the beginning of modern education in Persia. Gudovich, who sat in Georgievsk at the time, instructed Erekle to avoid "expense and fuss",[38] while Erekle, together with Solomon II and some Imeretians headed southwards of Tbilisi to fend off the Iranians. The British-commanded South Persia Rifles were in the south, the Dunsterforce (later known as the North Persia Force, or Norperforce) occupied the Qar-e rn-Kermnh-Hamdn-Qazvn line, and other British contingents were based in Mahad. However, he did not do so; and Re Khan was now too powerful and the shah too discredited for the movement to depose the Qajars to be reversed. He hired French and Russian instructors as well as Persians to teach subjects as different as Language, Medicine, Law, Geography, History, Economics, and Engineering, amongst numerous others. After being chosen by the Sayyid Brothers of Barha, he ascended the throne at the young age of 16, under . During these eventful years, Amad Shah played only a small part in the internal politics of his country, on the whole doing what his counselors (some pro-German, some pro-British, some pro-Russian) advised him to do. The weakness of the government in the face of such aggression by an atheist foreign power sparked seething anger among many traditional Persians including the young Ruhollah Khomeini, who would later condemn both Communism and monarchy as treason against Persia's sovereignty and the laws of Islam. Amir Kabir issued an edict banning ornate and excessively formal writing in government documents; the beginning of a modern Persian prose style dates from this time. A leading figure was the shahs maternal grandfather, Kmrn Mrz. Abrahamian Ervand, "Oriental Despotism:The Case of Qajar Iran" International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. Britain also sent sepoys to reinforce the Brigade. - Wikimedia Commons The instruments of central administration were overhauled, and Amir Kabir assumed responsibility for all areas of the bureaucracy. On 31 October 1925, the Majlis approved a bill deposing the Qajars and entrusting the provisional government to Re Khan. Agha Mohammad Khan defeated numerous rivals and brought all of Iran under his rule, establishing the Qajar . Named after the capital city of the Persian Empire, the book is an autobiographical tale set during the Islamic Revolution of Iran and the Iran- Iraq War in the 1970s and 1980s, told through a series of comics. Between 1914 and 1918, the Ottoman troops massacred many thousands of Iran's Assyrian and Armenian population, as part of the Assyrian and Armenian genocides, respectively.[91][92]. A powerful reactionary and sworn enemy of the new order, Kmrn Mrz worked to poison the young shahs mind against his distinguished state counselors and to make him believe that they had betrayed his father. ahmad shah qajar cause of deathcapricorn and virgo flirting. Their head, Agha Mohammad Khan, as his first objective,[37] resolved to bring the Caucasus again fully under the Persian orbit. [38], With half of the troop's Agha Mohammad Khan crossed the Aras river with, he now marched directly upon Tbilisi, where it commenced into a huge battle between the Iranian and Georgian armies. He had four children, each by a different wife. "Qajar" redirects here. [38] Erekle appealed then to his theoretical protector, Empress Catherine II of Russia, asking for at least 3,000 Russian troops,[38] but he was ignored, leaving Georgia to fend off the Persian threat alone. His first wife was Lydia Jahanbani. [102] After 1915, Russia and Britain demanded the recall of the Swedish advisers. In 1797, Agha Mohammad Khan was assassinated in Shusha, the capital of Karabakh Khanate, and was succeeded by his nephew, Fath-Ali Shah Qajar. He was not able to prevent Britain and Russia from encroaching into regions of traditional Persian influence. He died four years later at the age of 32. On this Wikipedia the language links are at the top of the page across from the article title. worst football hooligans uk As a further direct result and consequence of the Gulistan and Turkmenchay treaties of 1813 and 1828 respectively, the formerly Iranian territories became part of Russia for around the next 180 years, except Dagestan, which has remained a Russian possession ever since. 437-439 Abdul-Aziz Movahed Nasaj and Sajjad Farmohmedy, 2015 438. Storming of Lankaran, 13 January 1813. ahmad shah qajar cause of death Moammad-Al Shah was considered to have lost his right to the throne by opposing and seeking the overthrow of the constitutional order and by taking bast, or sanctuary, in the Russian embassy when the armed contingents of the constitutionalists seized control of Tehran. In the early 20th century, the Persian Constitutional Revolution created an elected parliament or Majilis, and sought the establishment of a constitutional monarchy, deposing Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar for Ahmad Shah Qajar, but many of the constitutional reforms were reversed by an intervention led by the Russian Empire. does papaya cause bloating; distinguish between portability and compatibility as used in software selection; what kind of government did the shah lead? [74], Fath Ali Shah's reign saw increased diplomatic contacts with the West and the beginning of intense European diplomatic rivalries over Iran. [44] Reassessment of Iranian hegemony over Georgia did not last long; in 1799 the Russians marched into Tbilisi, two years after Agha Mohammad Khan's death. [87] Qajar Iran would become a battleground between Russian, Ottoman, and British forces in the Persian campaign of World War I. Reza Khan was subsequently proclaimed monarch as Reza Shah Pahlavi, reigning from 1925 to 1941. ahmad shah qajar cause of death old restaurants in lawrence, ma But it was clear to Norman that the shah was motivated by fear, and that he intended to wait out the crisis abroad, returning to Iran if it passed, but remaining in Europe if the Bolsheviks took over (Documents XIII, p. 678). Oktober 1925. The agreement was deeply resented in France and openly denounced by the American minister in Tehran, who promised the Iranian nationalists his countrys full support in resisting this colonial pact (M. T. Bahr, Tr-emotaar-e azb-e ss, vol. [32] At about the same time, Karim Khan Zand had ascended the Iranian throne; Erekle II quickly tendered his de jure submission to the new Iranian ruler, however, de facto, he remained autonomous. Others simply voluntarily refused to live under Christian Russian rule, and thus disembarked for Turkey or Iran. Painting from Golestan collection depicting Soltan Ahmad Shah, his . [4] He was son of Khujista Akhtar, the fourth son of Bahadur Shah I. Qajars filled a number of diplomatic missions and governorships in the 1617th centuries for the Safavids. Submitted tags will be reviewed by site administrator before it is posted online.If you enter several tags, separate with commas. ahmad shah qajar cause of death - simssuccessgroup.com One of the greatest achievements of Amir Kabir was the building of Dar ol Fonoon in 1851, the first modern university in Persia and the Middle East. M. J. Sheikh-ol-Islami, AMAD SHAH QJR, Encyclopdia Iranica, I/6, pp. [18], About a decade later, in violation of the Gulistan Treaty, the Russians invaded Iran's Erivan Khanate. Ahmad Shah Qajar and his Cabinet - Smithsonian's National Museum of Following the 18041814 War, but also per the 18261828 war which ceded the last territories, large migrations, so-called Caucasian Muhajirs, set off to migrate to mainland Iran. Ahmad Shah Qajar - Wikipedia G. Lenczowski, Russia and the West in Iran, 1918-1948, Ithaca, 1949. 6, pp. For Agha Mohammad Khan, the resubjugation and reintegration of Georgia into the Iranian Empire was part of the same process that had brought Shiraz, Isfahan, and Tabriz under his rule. , 2000. Reza Shah was the founder of the Pahlavi dynasty and Shah of Iran (Persia) from 1925 to 1941. book a tip slot neath ahmad shah qajar cause of death. Due to his young age, his uncle, Ali Reza Khan Azod al-Molk, governed as regent. [102], The number of Russian officers in the Cossack Brigade would increase over time. [66] This brigade would prove decisive in the following decades to come in Qajar history. The Qajar Iran would become a victim of the Great Game between Russia and Britain for influence over central Asia. [citation needed]. [35] A limited Russian contingent of two infantry battalions with four artillery pieces arrived in Tbilisi in 1784,[33] but was withdrawn in 1787, despite the frantic protests of the Georgians, as a new war against Ottoman Turkey had started on a different front. During the next two and a half years Amir Kabir initiated important reforms in virtually all sectors of society. The assembly adjourned without reaching a decision, and Re Khan soon thereafter journeyed to Qom, where he conferred with the powerful religious leaders. Ganja. Photograph shows Ahmad Shah Qajar (1898-1930), who was Shah of Iran from 1909 to 1925 and was the last leader of the Qajar . Provinzen und Zentralgewalt Persiens im 16. und 17. In response, the Shah procured two large loans from Russia (in part to fund personal trips to Europe). 657-660. iwi masada aftermarket parts. Ahmad Shah was born in Tabriz on 21 January 1898 and ascended to the throne at the age of 12[2] after the removal of his father Mohammad-Ali Shah by the Parliament on 16 July 1909. But his intention to leave the country to its fate and save his own vast fortune at the first convenient opportunity remained unchanged. Public anger mounted as the Shah sold off concessions such as road building monopolies, the authority to collect duties on imports, etc. Battle of Ganja, 1826. "However the result of the Treaty of Turkmenchay was a tragedy for the Azerbaijani people. 270 winchester load data sierra Facebook; edwyn collins a girl like you Twitter; sony jobs near illinois Google+; evergreen state college ranking . In a few hours, the Iranian king Agha Mohammad Khan was in full control of the Georgian capital. Maker(s) Artist: Assad-Allah al-Husayni Naqqash-bashi (Iran, active early 20th century) Historical period(s) Qajar period, 1915 (1334 A.H.); redated 1910 (1328 A.H.) Medium Oil on canvas Dimensions [71] As a result of the Treaty of Gulistan (1813) and the Treaty of Turkmenchay (1828), Iran was forced to cede Iranian Armenia (which also constituted the present-day Armenia), to the Russians. On 21 February 1921, Ahmad Shah was pushed aside in a military coup by Colonel Reza Khan, Minister of War and commander of the Persian Cossack Brigade, who subsequently seized the post of Prime Minister. Following the death of Nader Shah in 1747, many tribal chiefs rose in revolt in the hope of taking over the . Later, the formal termination of the Qajar dynasty by the Majles turned Ahmad Shah's 1923 European tour into exile. Qajar Iran - Wikipedia [31] When Nader Shah died in 1747, they capitalized on the chaos that had erupted in mainland Iran, and declared de facto independence. Dar-ol-Fonoon was established for training a new cadre of administrators and acquainting them with Western techniques. The immediate ancestor of the Qajar dynasty, Shah Qoli Khan of the Quvanlu of Ganja (also spelled Ghovanloo or Ghovanlou), married into the Quvanlu Qajars of Astarabad. [29] In 1779 following the death of Karim Khan of the Zand dynasty, Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar, the leader of the Qajars, set out to reunify Iran. He was Grand Master of the following orders: French Third Republic: Grand Cross of the. The coup of 1921 rendered Ahmad Shah politically weaker and less relevant. The newly born Soviet Union responded by annexing portions of northern Persia as buffer states much like its Tsarist predecessor. The memory of this vengeful ruler is universally execrated; yet he did keep Persia intact at a time of struggle. Ahmad Shah Qajar was born 21 January 1898 in Tabriz, and succeeded to the throne at age 11. [85] Although the constitutional forces had triumphed, they faced serious difficulties. He interfered in political appointments that lay outside his jurisdiction; he engaged in corrupt practices that came to be widely known, for example in grain speculation, in order to augment his already considerable fortune; and his avariciousness was noted even by foreign observers, including the British minister to Tehran, who reported in a dispatch that the best way to keep the shah well-disposed towards England was to give him, or obtain for him, as much money as we can for that is what he loves most in the world (Norman to Curzon, 25 June 1920, Documents on British Foreign Policy, first series, XIII, London, 1963, p. 538). Ahmad Shah was formally crowned on 21 July 1914, upon reaching his majority. SWEDISH OFFICERS IN PERSIA, 191115", "Imperial Power and Dictatorship: Britain and the Rise of Reza Shah, 19211926", The International Qajar Studies Association, International Institute of Social History, Persian Constitutional Revolution (19051911), 1949 Iranian Constituent Assembly election, March 1979 Iranian Islamic Republic referendum, December 1979 Iranian constitutional referendum, 2009 Iranian presidential election protests, International military intervention against the Islamic State (2014), Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (2015), 20182019 Iranian general strikes and protests, Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Islamic Consultative Assembly (parliament), Industrial Development and Renovation Organization (IDRO), Iran Aviation Industries Organization (IAIO), https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Qajar_Iran&oldid=1142569060, States and territories established in 1785, States and territories disestablished in 1925, Early Modern history of Georgia (country), Articles containing Persian-language text, Articles with Russian-language sources (ru), Pages using infobox country or infobox former country with the flag caption or type parameters, Pages using infobox country or infobox former country with the symbol caption or type parameters, Articles with unsourced statements from January 2016, Articles to be expanded from September 2021, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, This page was last edited on 3 March 2023, at 04:30. When Nasser ed-Din succeeded to the throne, Amir Nezam was awarded the position of the prime minister and the title of Amir Kabir, the Great Ruler. gh Moammad Khn, (born 1742, Gorgn, Irandied 1797, near Shusha), founder and first ruler of the Qjr dynasty of Iran. But the constitutionalists were shrewd enough to foresee that complications might arise under Article 7 of the Treaty of Torkamy of 1828, by which the Russian government recognized the succession to the throne to lie in the direct male heirs of Abbs Mrz, son and heir-apparent to Fat-Al Shah. Amad Shah's position was considerably affected when on 21 February 1921exactly 40 days before the British troops were to begin their evacuation of Irana division of the Persian Cossack brigade under the command of Re Khan marched from Qazvn to Tehran and occupied the capital. With the arrival of the Cossacks in Tehran, the cabinet fell and the feeble prime minister, Fatallh Akbar, took sanctuary in the British embassy. Ahmad Shah Qajar. Persian administrators thought the reforms could strengthen the country against foreign influences. At that time, large parts of Iran were under tight Russian influence and control, and since 1910 Russian forces were present inside the country, while many of its cities possessed Russian garrisons. info)), also referred to as Qajar Persia,[7] the Qajar Empire,[a] Sublime State of Persia, officially the Sublime State of Iran (Persian: Dowlat-e 'Aliyye-ye Irn) and also known as the Guarded Domains of Iran (Persian: Mamlek-e Mahruse-ye Irn[8]), was an Iranian state[9] ruled by the Qajar dynasty, which was of Turkic origin,[10][11][12] specifically from the Qajar tribe, from 1789 to 1925. The debates between the two political parties led to violence and even assassinations. Erekle II returned to Tbilisi to rebuild the city, but the destruction of his capital was a death blow to his hopes and projects. Ahmad Shah Qajar - DocsLib In 1864 until the early 20th century, another mass expulsion took place of Caucasian Muslims as a result of the Russian victory in the Caucasian War. In November, 1915, urged by the Germans, a large number of Majlis deputies and elder statesmen quit the capital and transferred their base of operations first to Qom and eventually to Kermnh, where they established a rival, nationalist government. A. However, the Turkish Grand National Assembly had on March 3 passed three laws abolishing the caliphate, suppressing the ministry of religious affairs and the system of awqf (religious endowments) and placing all religious schools and seminaries under the national ministry of education. When the shah reneged on a promise to permit the establishment of a "house of justice", or consultative assembly, 10,000 people, led by the merchants, took sanctuary in June in the compound of the British legation in Tehran. [100], The British formed the South Persia Rifles in 1916, which was initially separate from the Persian army until 1921. In 1923, Ahmad Shah left Iran for Europe for health reasons. Reza Khan was subsequently proclaimed monarch as Reza Shah Pahlavi, reigning from 1925 to 1941. Ahmad Shah died on February 21, 1930, in Neuilly-sur-Seine, France. All documents tagged "Ahmad Shah Qajar" - bahai-library.com Nasser ed-Din Shah tried to exploit the mutual distrust between Great Britain and Russia to preserve Persia's independence, but foreign interference and territorial encroachment increased under his rule. . In 1923, Ahmad Shah went into exile in Europe. Soltan Ahmad Shah Qajar, Shahanshah - geni family tree Ahmad Shahi Pavilion - Wikipedia Out of the greater part of the territory, six separate nations would be formed through the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, namely Georgia, Azerbaijan, Armenia, and three generally unrecognized republics Abkhazia, Artsakh and South Ossetia claimed by Georgia. Tribes and Empire on the Margins of Nineteenth-Century Iran. On his return to Tehran on April 1, he recommended that all discussion on establishing a republic cease. In August, the shah, through the issue of a decree promised a constitution. Agha Mohammad Khan was known as one of the cruelest kings, even by the standards of 18th-century Iran.
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